Performativity and Theatricality in Palaiologan Iconography: The Composition of the Temptations of Christ in the Chora Monastery

The anthropocentric character of Byzantine art was, through the centuries,* a fixed reference point and a link between this art and most of the cultural manifestations of Medieval man. [1] Emotion and motion, these two dominant trends in the visual arts, which were expressed most exuberantly in Palaiologan times, were to create compositions that are unrivalled in their performativity and theatricality. [2] The reason for this artistic aspect of religious painting is that in this period narrativity, one of the most important currents in Late Byzantine art, reached its climax. Consequently, a basic prerequisite for understanding Byzantine performativity in art is narrativity, which consists in the detailed rendering of the Gospel narration to such a degree that even a single phrase or line can be a source of inspiration for creating a representation.

This dense recounting of events through small episodes which are enacted in a narrow spatial-temporal frame, can be classed in two basic types: in the first the episode is narrated visually with what we could call a textual structure—that is, with scenes that play the role of prologue, main subject and epilogue. [3] Paramount example by the two brilliant masters of narrativity, Michael Astrapas and Eutychios, is the splendid composition of the Dormition of the Virgin on the west wall of the Peribleptos in Ochrid (1295) (Figure 1). [4] The angel’s announcement of the death of the Theotokos and the sharing out of her garments to poor women are the introductory events, the representation of the Dormition is the central subject, and the burial of the Virgin is the epilogue. The same textual structure of the narration is encountered also in smaller iconographic formats, such as the sub-cycles that compose the Passion cycle [5] or, more specifically, the story of the Appearance of Christ on the Way to Emmaus. Prologue is the Journey to Emmaus, central subject the Supper, and epilogue Luke and Kleopas informing the apostles. [6] The second type of visual narration, on which I shall focus here, is the presentation of one event by illustrating several episodes, each of equal significance, which take place in successive moments in time. [7] In other words, these are different phases or moments of the same event. [8] Among the ideal expressions of this kind of narration is the composition of the Temptations of Christ, in the second bay of the exonarthex in the Chora monastery in Constantinople (1310/15). [9] The painter divided the surface of the domical vault down the middle, in order to accommodate two compositions: that of John Bearing Witness to Christ, in the north half, and that of the Temptations of Christ, in the south half. We can distinguish the two compositions because the painter has created a small gap between them, using architectural and natural elements of them as separator (Figure 2).

As has been ascertained from the extant examples of the Temptations, the Chora composition is a unique creation. [10] Avant-garde and with many innovations in the iconography and the use of inscriptions, it is one of the most characteristic examples of narrativity and performativity, which raises the following three questions: What are the artistic and expressive means with which the painter turns the Gospel narrative into a theatrical performance? How do body language and facial expression illustrate the dialogues between Christ and Satan? To what extent did the views of the Patron of Chora, Theodore Metochites, contribute to the creation of this singular composition?

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The major challenge for the Chora painter was to depict such a demanding composition on a single large surface with just two figures as protagonists, in contrast to the host of figures in the Koimesis representation in the Peribleptos. In Chora we have a theatrical duet between the Devil and Christ. The basic material for its successful rendering exists in the Gospel text, which conveys the dramatic atmosphere but is spare in description, placing emphasis on the dialogues, without entering into details about the emotional state of the protagonists. [11] The talented painter of Chora utilizes the text to the full, emphasizing the performativity of the figures, which he reproduces in different moments of the event. His intention of creating striking elements, in order to counterbalance the repetition of the figures, is achieved thanks to the superb setting which covers half the surface of the second domical vault. By employing the Gospel text as the basic scenario of the representation, the painter creates four episodes (Figure 3) for the three temptations that Christ receives from Satan, so differentiating the Chora composition from every preceding representation. [12]

A basic trait of the performativity is the variety in the ways in which the figures move, gesticulate, and express their emotions in each episode. Sophisticated statement of the visual fullness and innovativeness in the conception of the composition is that motion conveys the psychological state and the different character and sentiments of the two protagonists. The repulsive figure of Satan moves (Figure 4) spasmodically, appears suddenly, and jumps out from different points in the rocky landscape. [13] His movement and his gestures are exaggerated, revealing, like his facial expression, the basic reason for his presence and his aim, as related in the Gospel text. Through provocation, deceit, and mockery, he tries hard to trap Christ. Dominant in the depictions of Satan is his obvious intention of bringing Christ into a state that he has energetically striven to avoid throughout his life. The Devil tries to tempt him into displaying his divine power, so submitting to his demands. The dark creature with his sharp features avoids facing Christ directly and confronting him on an equal footing. [14] He exploits the rocky and uneven terrain so as to change position continuously, overtly creating an atmosphere of lies and deceit, in which he attempts to lure Jesus. Satan’s theatrical pose, his disheveled hair, and the constantly changing gestures of his hands create a sense of unrest and nervousness, so as to enable him to snare Christ and break his resistance.

To the contrary, the figure of Christ in all four depictions of him is distinguished generally by stability. In the first two episodes and the fourth, which correspond to the three temptations, Christ moves calmly and through his divine power deals serenely with the Devil’s provocations. The painter renders the more general feeling that he gains from the Gospel text and depicts Christ conversing and giving his stern answers, particularly to the first temptation. Although his expression denotes self-control and restraint in dealing with the temptations, obvious too is the irritation aroused by the derisive demeanor of his adversary. The escalation of emotion and the increasing tension are overt after the second temptation. In contrast to the immediately preceding depiction, Christ’s especially somber manner, which is accompanied by gestures revealing his exasperation and psychological disturbance (Figure 5), so that he almost chases Satan, are telling instances of performativity in depictions of Christ in Palaiologan painting. The juxtaposition of sentiments and movements is heightened by the treatment of the mountainous environment as a staged backdrop, which, as happens mainly in Palaiologan art, the painter adapts to the plot of the storytelling, so as to achieve a dramatic effect. [15]

Although the influence of the Gospel text in the representation is also apparent from the inscriptions, which will be discussed at the end of the paper, evident too is the artistic personality of the Chora painter, who as exponent of the major trend of the period for narrativity and theatricality, through the treatment of the figures, goes far beyond the text. He brings the figures to life, intimating their character and personality. The painter transfers the basic spiritual content of the Gospel narrative to Christ’s clash with Satan, which he shows through motion and expression. The body language and the emotional state, as imprinted in the faces, in reality transfer to the church a kind of theatrical performance which the believer could live and experience fully.

Narrativity as detailed rendering of the text with images, and performativity as interpretation of the text and the protagonists of the scenes, considerably reduced the distance between the beholder and the depicted, leading the believer into a profound relationship with the sacred story. Furthermore, the painters of the Palaiologan period do not confine themselves only to depicting motion and emotion, but handle their subject with a theatrical perception, which is clear in the overall artistic treatment even of fleeting details. Study of Palaiologan painting reveals the painters’ great experience in matters of composition and of individualized projection of personalities and characters. There are several examples of this, such as the representation from the cycle of the Post-Resurrection Appearances of Christ in the church of St George at Staro Nagoričino, which was decorated by the virtuosos of narrativity, Michael Astrapas and Eutychios, in 1316–1317. The consummate theatricality of the scene is apparent in the episode where Peter is asking Christ a question, while simultaneously pointing to John, and Christ, who although walking ahead, is turning his head back to answer Peter, as John and the rest of the disciples look on. Peter’s facial expression and gestures convey his curiosity, John’s belie his embarrassment, and Christ’s suggest his severe reply, part of which is written in the inscription. [16] All these, in combination with the poses and positions of the protagonists, attest the painter’s inspired staging of the narrative ensemble. [17] Despite the profusion of visual elements conveying performativity, the composition in Staro Nagoričino is distinguished by balance, harmony, and semantic fullness. The two highly accomplished painters, with this representation and through many others of analogous style, iconography, and performativity, create, like the painter in Chora, staged transferences of the text to the wall-paintings. They endow their figures with the traditional solemnity, which they enrich with elements of theatricality, clearly imparting a more secular conception to the painting of the period.

Returning to our composition, after the second temptation, the dialogue between Christ and Satan is interrupted and the inscription that follows changes style and content. From the dialogue we pass to the narration of the Gospel story. Τhe text of the inscription above the third episode (Figure 5) and the figure of Christ, which copies the Gospel text, is presented by an external narrator.

This inscription demonstrates the contribution of the Gospel text as primary source not only for depicting the four episodes, but also for the theatricality of the composition as a whole. However, we should ask whether the Gospel text was sufficient for the creation of this remarkable composition. Without doubt the painter was capable of turning text into image and of creating a splendid composition with all the traits noted above. The painter’s handling of the text, the figures, and the landscape create a unique composition.

In Chora, the natural landscape and the buildings are placed as if in a stage set, not only playing the role of backdrop but also participating in the action of the protagonists, thus contributing to the development of the narrative. The inhospitable stony desert, where the endurance and resistance of even the Son of God are put to the test, becomes the ideal locus of the eternal conflict between Good and Evil, with the tormented Christ repelling the provocative Satan, who leaps out from between the rocks. Τhe theatrical character of the visual narrative is continued until the end of the composition, with the wonderful setting in the last episode relieving the dramatic tension.

In the scene of the Third Temptation, Christ declares his victory over Satan’s temptations by stepping firmly upon the temple of Solomon (Figure 6). [19] This episode functions again in theatrical terms, as it restores a sense of mental calm and redemption, so relieving the anxiety of the viewer. In Chora, as in many other Palaiologan examples, the depiction of the physical or architectural background of the scenes is clearly more developed in comparison to Middle Byzantine compositions, which are distinguished in general by a simpler approach. [20] The treatment of the background in the composition of the Temptations is far removed from any concept of abstract or illusionistic space. [21] On the contrary, it does not merely follow the Gospel text but enhances it, with the painter handling the background in such a way as to present the protagonists of the plot as if on a theatrical stage. The scenic structure shows to advantage the character and the intentions of the actors, contributing to the unfolding of the story and the transmitting of its messages to the beholder. [22] The struggle in the rocky landscape captures the fiendish work of the Devil and arouses a feeling of anxiety, whereas the triumph of Christ, at the pinnacle of the architectural form of the nave, expresses the triumph of divinity, bringing relief and joy because it gives the message of salvation. Consequently, the backdrop, where supernatural forces conflict, takes on the metaphysical character of the Gospel narrative, and this is another example of the biblical significance of theatricality in Palaiologan art. [23] In Chora, like the figures, the background on the one hand presents the historical elements of the narrative, and on the other the symbolic messages that the desert and the building offer. [24]

In addition to the figures, the architectural and the natural setting, the important role of the inscriptions in the theatricality of the composition should also be noted. They are an integral part of this narrative ensemble and exceptionally interesting because of their polymorphism, their position within the composition, and the diverse narrative manners with which the Gospel story is told. [25] The inscriptions in the composition do not present the episodes with brief titles, as is the case in most scenes, but narrate the story in two different ways. The theatricality of the composition becomes even more overt with the first narrative type of the inscriptions which comment on the representation of the Temptations. This is the dialogical type. We have here pairs of texts giving Christ’s dialogue with Satan, according to the Gospel of Matthew. It is very interesting that Satan’s temptations are the inscriptions written on the gray color of the rock and that Christ’s responses are the inscriptions on the gold ground. The contrast between the bright gold and the dark ground in the mosaic of the Temptations alludes to the opposition between the spirituality of the divine light and the demonic darkness of Satan’s words, in accordance with the writings of Chora’s patron, Theodore Metochites.

The composition of the Temptations in its final form also carries the stamp of the patron of Chora, Theodore Metochites, who collaborates with the painter so that the patron’s views are imprinted not only in the composition of the Temptations but in the entire iconographic program, as I have shown elsewhere. [26] Metochites’ contribution to the enrichment of the composition is decisive, and the patron emphasizes a more philosophical approach to the eternal struggle between Good and Evil. This universal clash is a favorite theme in Metochites’ literary works, namely his poems and his treatise: Ἠθικòς ἤ Περὶ Παιδείας (Moral Treatise or On Education). [27] His first poem begins with a prolix prayer to God in which he describes in epic terms the struggle between Good and Evil, caused by the devilish forces whose aim is to destroy the material and spiritual gifts of God to Mankind. [28] Divine power and divine wisdom are victorious over the forces of darkness:

Satan’s actions, which are manifested in human life sometimes in the form of illness of the body and spiritual death, sometimes by the envy that leads man to destruction and his condemnation to Hell, the kingdom of darkness, are dominant subjects throughout Metochites’ literary oeuvre. [30] In order to describe this great adventure of human existence, the patron of Chora dramatizes his poetry, but at the end there is always the certainty of the defeat of the daemonic forces, due to the divine majesty of the Almighty, which leads to salvation. Indeed, the motif of devilish energy in man and the redemption offered by Christ becomes at once central theme and characteristic denouement in many of Metochites’ poems:

This dynamic presence and apparent dominance of Satan, as presented in the Chora composition, can be correlated with Metochites’ Moral Treatise, in which he argues that, notwithstanding the preeminence of Evil, in the end it is Good that prevails in society:

In conclusion, we should point out mainly the maturing in monumental painting, around the mid-thirteenth century, of the artistic means and above all the painters’ desire to enhance narrativity in the most performative manner. The course of painting in the preceding centuries had prepared the way for this performativity, through the visual narration, and the painters sought through their art to attain the climax in presenting the figures in motion and with pluralistic facial expression by evolving and surpassing the Middle Byzantine stereotype of sorrow and pain. Research should not underestimate the fact that the Gospel text and the painters’ talent were the two principal reasons for achieving theatricality in the Palaiologan period. Other factors that possibly favored the performative presentation, such as the drama or the rhetorical discourse in aristocratic salons, [33] function circumstantially and in combination with the education of the patron or the spiritual creator of the program and do not constitute the basic reason for the theatricality.

Emotion and expressionism, motion and body language in general, together with elements from the staged backdrop, are the dominant expressive means through which the mode of the linear temporal succession of episodes is developed during the Palaiologan period. The extensive use of expressive means for the individualized projection of the personalities and characters of the narration is a significant and seminal artistic talent of the Chora painter. The protagonists are repeated at each moment, so that the Gospel text keeps its temporal sequence and the development of the plot that unfolds in the space and in the eyes of the congregants in the church, with the figures represented as if cinematographic actors. Palaiologan theatricality in monumental painting includes all the previous developments and offers a new and holistic dramaturgy in which all the figures depicted participated against a backdrop that is anything but abstract or neutral but that contributes to the telling of the story. To this creation, which is undoubtedly of the painters, in some cases the patrons of the churches contribute too, provided they have the education, to organizing the iconographic program as well as the iconography of specific subjects. In Chora the painter together with Metochites stage the representation of the Temptations, with the latter most probably collaborating so as to achieve the fullest possible dramatization of the composition. This is surmised from his singular personal and authorial approach to and interpretation of the temptations in his own life and the salvation that he seeks with the triumphal victory of Christ over Evil.