Introduction. Emotion and Performance in Late Antiquity and Byzantium

The present collection of articles results from a research project initiated by the Institute for Historical Research at the National Hellenic Research Foundation, in collaboration with the Center for Hellenic Studies at Harvard University (Washington, D.C.), under my direction as an Associate in Byzantine Studies at CHS-Harvard from 2013 to 2023. The rich heritage of CHS-Harvard in the study of orality and performance provided an ideal foundation for this endeavor, and the contributions of colleagues from the CHS proved invaluable. Over the course of the project, various academic bodies and cultural agents have further contributed to its success. Special thanks are due to The American College of Greece, the Center for Hellenic Studies – Harvard University (Greece), and the Cultural Society AINOS.

Launched in 2016, the project aimed to unravel the hidden codes embedded in performance and performativity within the written and visual sources of the Late Antique and Byzantine periods. The collaboration of experts from diverse disciplines, alongside regular seminars at the National Hellenic Research Foundation and master classes led by Gregory Nagy at The American College of Greece, facilitated our engagement with the terminology of performance studies, social anthropology, history, psychology, and art history.

The case studies undertaken by project collaborators are presented in this volume, which reflects the outcomes of the international symposium held in April 2021. The contributions encompass a broad spectrum of interests in cultural history. The interplay among various aspects of Byzantine cultural history is evident in these papers, which address texts, theology and liturgy, music, art, and modern interpretations, alongside the expression of performativity in everyday life in Byzantium. This project and conference extended the scope of performativity beyond theatrical representation, examining indirect performative forms found in written and art-historical records.

Moreover, the project sought to investigate how emotion is elicited in both secular and sacred rhetorical texts and performances, particularly as manifested in the Liturgy and the homiletic tradition, characterized by intense emotions that engage and transport audiences beyond their everyday concerns. In the field of homiletics, leading scholars have produced substantial studies examining various parameters of the homiletic tradition. Key contributions include works by Cunningham (1996, 1998, 2008, 2016, 2022), Allen (1998), Antonopoulou (2013, 2022), Gador-Whyte (2020), Valiavitcharska (2013), Krueger (2014), Melas (2020), Tsironi (1998, 2010) and others.

The elements of orality inherent in rhetoric, as assimilated into homiletics, hagiography, and hymnography, retain significant aspects of their Greek origins. The language employed is both vibrant and immersive, effectively appealing to the audience’s emotions and fostering communion in a nuanced manner. It utilizes a complex symbolic system that is both understood and shared by the audience. The term ‘performativity’ is invoked to articulate how language and actions enact reality rather than merely represent it. Rhetoric plays a pivotal role in the expression of emotions, with contemporary psychological theories providing profound insights into this process. Such theories enable authors and orators to effectively forge connections with their audiences and cultivate shared experiences. A fundamental mechanism through which rhetoric facilitates emotional expression is through appeals known as pathos, which significantly influence audience engagement. When speakers employ rhetorical devices—such as vivid imagery, storytelling, and evocative language—they arouse potent emotional reactions.

Theories of rhetoric, particularly those articulated by Kenneth Burke, draw upon Aristotelian concepts to explore the profound power of language and symbols in shaping human experience and communication (Bygrave, 2012; Holland, 2018). Burke asserts that rhetoric involves the strategic use of symbols to create meaning and influence behavior. This symbolic action has the capacity to elicit emotional responses and nurture connections among the audience (Burke, 1967; 1972). In his notion of identification, Burke emphasizes the common ground shared between the orator or author and the audience, which serves to facilitate emotional responses and shared experiences. By appealing to emotions within the context of rhetorical performance, speakers engage their audiences, fostering empathy and connection (Wess, 1996).

Rhetorical performance also leverages nonverbal communication, which is crucial for the effective conveyance of emotions. Research indicates that body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions significantly enhance the emotional impact of a message (Burgoon, Manusov, & Guerrero, 2021; Mehrabian, 2017). Genuine passion, expressed through vocal inflection or gestures, amplifies the emotional resonance of spoken words (Pease & Pease, 2012). This alignment of nonverbal cues with verbal messages not only aids audiences in comprehending content but also enables them to feel the emotions conveyed, thereby fostering a deeper connection to the message (Knapp, Hall, & Horgan, 2013). Nonverbal communication plays a vital role in religious rituals, where gestures, facial expressions, and bodily movements convey a spectrum of emotions, from reverence to sorrow. Actions such as kneeling or raising hands serve as powerful symbols of devotion, allowing the Byzantine audience to connect with the spiritual significance of rituals and deepening their emotional experiences (Argyle, 2013; Taft, 1992; Pentcheva, 2010; Miller, 2003).

Modern psychological theories suggest that audience engagement constitutes a co-creative process in which listeners actively interpret and respond to emotional expressions (Damasio & Damasio, 1994; Scherer & Zentner, 2001). Antonio Damasio’s theory of emotions provides profound insights into the study of performance, fundamentally reshaping our understanding of how emotions influence both the creation and reception of performative acts (Damasio, 1999). Central to Damasio’s argument is the integration of emotion with cognition, positing that emotions are not merely reactive responses to external stimuli but are integral to cognitive processes, social interactions, and the construction of identity (Damasio & Damasio, 1994). Within the realm of performance, this perspective underscores the essential role of emotional engagement in shaping both the intentions of performers and the interpretations of audiences, as emotional cues inform perceptions and reactions (Scherer & Zentner, 2001). Damasio’s emphasis on the embodied nature of emotions is particularly salient, as it highlights how the physicality of performance serves as a powerful medium for conveying complex emotional states, transforming the performative into a profoundly transformative experience (Damasio, 1999).

The role of emotions and feelings was explored by Silvan Tomkins in the 1960s, forming the core of affect theory, which recognizes that rhetoric encompasses not only logical arguments but also the evocation of emotional responses (Tomkins, 1962; Sedgwick & Frank, 1995). This theory distinguishes between affect, viewed as a pre-cognitive, embodied, and intensive experience, and emotion, which is more structured, culturally mediated, and often conscious (Tomkins, 1963). It further investigates how rhetoric can be employed to manipulate or inspire feelings in audiences, framing emotional expressions not merely as individual experiences but as vital communicative tools that convey feelings and intentions, thereby fostering social bonds (Sedgwick & Frank, 1995; Wetherell, 2013).

As audiences witness a speaker’s emotional expressions, they may experience analogous feelings, thus illustrating the significance of emotional contagion (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1993). Recent studies highlight the neural mechanisms behind this phenomenon, emphasizing the role of mirror neurons in empathy and emotional resonance (Iacoboni, 2009). By harnessing the art of rhetoric, speakers and performers craft compelling emotional narratives that resonate profoundly with audiences, fostering connections and empathy while enhancing a shared understanding of the human experience (Hatfield et al., 1993; Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007). This underscores the transformative potential of rhetoric in facilitating emotional expression and enriching interpersonal relationships.

The notion of narrative transportation is particularly relevant for understanding how rhetoric facilitates emotional expression. When audiences become absorbed in a narrative, they experience a form of emotional transportation, feeling as though they are participants in the events being described (Green, 2021). This process involves a deep engagement with the narrative, where attention, imagery, and emotions combine to create an immersive experience (Green & Brock, 2000). Through rhetorical techniques such as vivid imagery and storytelling, speakers can evoke strong emotional reactions, allowing audiences to connect more deeply with the content (Slater & Rouner, 2002). This emotional involvement enhances the persuasive power of the narrative and fosters a shared understanding and empathy among the audience (Busselle & Bilandzic, 2009). As Melanie Green eloquently articulates, “this feeling of being ‘lost in a story’ is the core of narrative transportation theory. Narrative transportation has been defined as a combination of attention, imagery, and feelings, in which an individual becomes immersed in a narrative world” (Green, 2021:87). This phenomenon heightens engagement, allowing audiences to connect with the speaker’s emotions on a deeper and more resonant level.

Performance is tied to an interactive framework, often incorporating ritualistic elements and associated with religious contexts (Carlson, 1996; 2004). Carlson’s theories, inspired by interdisciplinarity, position performance and performativity at the heart of cultural studies. Performance is not merely an epiphenomenon of texts or social rituals but a dynamic process through which texts, identities, and communal values are continually enacted and transformed. Discourse surrounding performance and its theoretical partner, “performativity,” dominates current critical theory. The idea of repetition is central: reenactment refers to Eric Kandel’s theory of memory, where repeated narratives alter the meaning and significance of an original event for both authors and audiences, reshaping their experiences (Kandel, 2001).

Crucial to defining both performance and performativity is the concept of interpretation, which transforms any narrative into a unique event, reflecting individual perspectives and shared beliefs expressed through symbolic figures and language. Performativity, gaining prominence in disciplines such as philosophy, linguistics, gender studies, and cultural theory, offers a lens to understand how language, behavior, and identity are not merely descriptive but performative. This exploration delves into the origins, theories, and contemporary significance of performativity, examining its multifaceted nature and its impact on our understanding of self, society, and culture.

The notion of performativity originates from philosophy, particularly in J.L. Austin’s seminal work “How to Do Things with Words” (1962 lectures published in 1975 by Harvard University Press). Austin introduced the idea that language is not just a tool for describing reality but also performs actions and shapes social realities. He distinguished between constative utterances, which represent facts, and performative utterances, which enact actions. Judith Butler expanded on Austin’s ideas in her book Gender Trouble (Butler, 2002), arguing that gender is constructed through repeated acts and gestures that create the illusion of a stable identity.

In linguistic theory, performativity captures the capacity of language to constitute social realities rather than merely describe them. This concept traces back to Austin’s mid-twentieth-century lectures, in which he demonstrated that certain verbal expressions operate as actions in their own right. Building on this groundwork, Searle’s subsequent formulation delineated three interrelated dimensions of any speech event: the locutionary dimension, which concerns the utterance’s propositional content; the illocutionary dimension, by which the speaker enacts a communicative function—such as a promise or command—through linguistic force; and the perlocutionary dimension, through which the utterance elicits effects in the audience, including persuasion, consolation, or deterrence (Searle, 1969).

Beyond the realms of language and gender, performativity extends to cultural dimensions, including race, class, and nationality. Cultural theorists, including Stuart Hall and Bell Hooks, have explored the enactment of identities through cultural practices and representations (Hall, 1997; Hooks, 1992). This perspective underscores the ways in which social identities are constructed, negotiated, and contested through representation, symbolism, and discourse.

Despite its limitations and the controversies surrounding it, performativity’s significance lies in its capacity to challenge traditional notions of identity, agency, and social reality, encouraging critical reflection on how individuals present themselves and are perceived in society. Furthermore, in the context of Byzantine culture, performativity signifies the intersection of theatrical performance, written and spoken word, and representational art, wherein emotional appeal plays a pivotal role in engaging the audience.

Late Antiquity and Byzantium experienced profound transformations that reshaped political structures, artistic expressions, and social practices, giving rise to new enactments reflecting contemporary values and beliefs (Cameron, 1995). Public worship emerged as a crucial platform for expressing faith, wherein the recitation of prayers, hymns, and sacramental rites reinforced communal identity and theological convictions (Taft, 1996). The clergy, especially bishops, assumed pivotal roles in these rituals, guiding congregations through sacred ceremonies that highlighted the presence of the divine (Meyendorff, 1989). As Christianity gained prominence, there was a shift in the perception of theater (Vivilakis, 2013). Many early Christian leaders viewed theatrical displays as morally questionable, resulting in a complex relationship between performance arts and Orthodoxy (Beacham, 1991; 1999). Despite these tensions, drama and Christian liturgy share a significant historical and conceptual relationship, with theatrical elements intricately woven into the practice and expression of Christian worship (Taft, 1996). Liturgy, homiletics, and hymnography have historically functioned as vital channels for conveying biblical narratives, theological truths, and spiritual experiences to congregations (Meyendorff, 1989). From the liturgical practices of early Christianity to the elaborate court rituals of the Byzantine Empire, these activities served as potent tools for expressing identity, reinforcing social norms, and negotiating power dynamics (Cameron, 1995). The performative practices of this era reveal the complexities of a society in transition, as art, religion, and politics converged to shape the lived experiences of individuals and communities.

The Byzantine court served as a focal point for elaborate rituals and ceremonies, underscoring the emperor’s authority and divine right to rule (Mango, 1996; Beihammer, 2020). Governance-related ceremonies, such as imperial coronations and public processions, were rich in symbolism and rhetoric, reinforcing the emperor’s connection to the divine (MacCormack, 1981; Maguire, 2019). These imperial court rituals were integrated into the Byzantine liturgy, enhancing its ceremonial splendor and theological embodiment (Taft, 1996; Pentcheva, 2010). From the 4th century onward, the Byzantine Rite underwent refinement and standardization. It evolved from early Christian practices and Jewish traditions, significantly shaped by developments in Constantinople, the imperial capital (Meyendorff, 1989; Parry, 2010). By the 6th century, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom was finalized, synthesizing earlier Antiochene traditions introduced by St. John Chrysostom during his tenure as Patriarch of Constantinople (Taft, 1996; Bradshaw, 2012). This liturgical tradition, deeply rooted in early Christianity and honed within the Eastern Roman Empire’s cultural and political milieu, remains central to Eastern Orthodox worship today. It embodies a profound synthesis of theology, art, ritual, and communal devotion, fostering a participatory worship experience (Ware, 1997; 2012; Louth, 2007).

Moreover, Byzantine religious art, particularly in the form of icons and mosaics, can be understood as a manifestation of ritual, where the acts of worship became a visual and tangible expression of faith (James, 2007; James & Webb, 2018; Barber, 2017; White 2019). James has especially examined the relationship between visual art and performance in Byzantine society. Her analysis of iconography and architecture in relation to theatrical practices has uncovered how visual representations complemented and enhanced the performative experience, creating a more immersive cultural environment (James 2004; 2015). Webb’s exploration of the nature of spectacle in Byzantine enactments has provided a framework for understanding how visual and auditory elements contributed to the overall impact of these expressions. Her work emphasizes the importance of spectacle in conveying meaning and engaging audiences, shifting the focus toward the sensory dimensions of these activities. The ritualistic use of icons in the church context allowed congregants to engage with the divine through acts of devotion (Pentcheva, 2010; 2017). The iconography employed in these artworks not only conveyed theological messages but also served as a means of reinforcing communal identity among believers.

Courtly culture in Byzantium flourished through elaborate feasts, poetry recitations, and musical performances, which were integral to showcasing social hierarchies and cultural sophistication. These events served not only as entertainment but also as platforms for negotiating power dynamics among the elite classes. The intricate performances, often hosted in grand settings, were symbolic of the political and social structures of the time (Stavrou, 2016). The blending of art, politics, and social performance is evident in the way these activities reflected the multifaceted nature of Byzantine society (Klein, 2006). This integration of different cultural elements illustrates the complexity and richness of Byzantine courtly life, where art and performance were used strategically to reinforce social order and political power (Horsley, 1997; Harvey, 2008).

In the past decades, scholars like Gregory Nagy, Averil Cameron, Margaret Alexiou, +Elizabeth Jeffreys, Margaret Mullett, Andrew White, Przemyslaw Marciniak, Liz James, Martin Hinterberger, and Ruth Webb, among others, have significantly enriched our understanding of rhetoric, emotion and performance through groundbreaking research that illuminates its complexity and cultural significance in the ancient world and in Byzantium. Gregory Nagy fundamentally transformed the understanding of Homeric poetry by demonstrating that the Iliad and Odyssey did not originate in a single moment of dictation but instead crystallized over centuries through a process of live “recomposition-in-performance,” whereby each recitation functioned simultaneously as an act of composition and recomposition (Nagy, 1996). Drawing on Parry and Lord’s pioneering work, he revealed that oral poets employed a sophisticated repertoire of formulaic phrases and metrical patterns, adapting core narrative material to the expectations of each performance context and treating oral recitation as a ritualized speech-act capable of accomplishing social and religious functions, such as invoking divine presence or affirming communal values (Nagy, 1996). Nagy’s comparative Indo-European approach further illuminated the deep structural parallels between Greek epic and other oral traditions—most notably South Slavic ballads, Vedic Sanskrit recitations, and early Celtic lays—showing that meter itself emerges from formula, as repeated use of traditional phrases generates the rhythmic regularities essential to live performance (Nagy, 2014). Building on these insights, he proposed the “Panathenaic Bottleneck” theory, which explains the emergence of a relatively stable Homeric text through institutional standardization at major Athenian festivals: as performances migrated into urban civic settings like the Panathenaea, the multiformity characteristic of decentralized oral traditions diminished, and the idea of a singular authorial figure “Homer” solidified to credit a now-fixed poem (Nagy, 2004). Across his work, Nagy’s integration of philological rigor with anthropological methods has established performance as the central lens for understanding how ancient Greek communities composed, transmitted, and stabilized their foundational epic traditions.

Dame Averil Cameron has fundamentally transformed Byzantine studies by revealing how rhetoric and performance function as the very engines of communal identity and authority. Early in her career, she demonstrated that Christian preaching and liturgical speech did not merely describe imperial power but actively produced it through ritualized language that created shared belief and allegiance (Cameron, 1991). Building on this insight, she showed that historical narration itself was a performative practice: by deploying classical rhetorical tropes within chronicles, authors shaped contemporary audiences’ perceptions of political events and architectural grandeur (Cameron, 1985). Her subsequent exploration of monastic ceremonies, public festivals, and scriptural commentary argued that literary and devotional texts must be understood as staged encounters in which readers and congregants participated in reinforcing doctrinal orthodoxy and social order (Cameron, 1996). In her synthetic surveys of the late antique Mediterranean and the later Roman world, she wove together analyses of civic pageantry, ecclesiastical ritual, and the recitation of sacred histories to contend that Byzantine culture emerged through ongoing performances rather than inherited traditions (Cameron, 1993). Bringing fresh attention to written dialogue, she dismantled the notion that these compositions simply recorded intellectual exchange, demonstrating instead that they were carefully scripted contests of argumentation designed to display authors’ rhetorical mastery and theological positions (Cameron & Gaul, 2017). Complementing her work on text, she pioneered the study of visual rhetoric by showing how gestures, spectator gaze, and icon programs enacted political theology within churches and imperial courts (Cameron, 1991). Over decades, Cameron has fused meticulous philological scholarship with performance theory to argue that Byzantine rhetoric and spectacle were not marginal adornments but central practices through which communities negotiated power, articulated belief, and sustained cultural memory across centuries.

Margaret Alexiou’s research has illuminated the centrality of emotional expression as a structured, communal performance rather than a mere private response. Early in her career, she demonstrated that ritualized vocalizations at funerals and public laments function as collective speech-acts, transforming individual grief into a shared affective event that reinforces social solidarity and moral order (Alexiou, 2002). By analyzing poetic formulae, gesture, and vocal timbre in both archaic and Byzantine contexts, she showed how participants draw upon culturally prescribed emotional scripts to generate what she terms an “affective architecture” that shapes communal identity and validates cultural norms (Alexiou, 2002).

Building on this framework, Alexiou extended her inquiry to the interplay of nostalgia and communal memory in oral traditions, arguing that narrative performances of longing and loss operate as mnemonic devices that preserve collective histories across generations (Alexiou, 2010). She revealed how singers and storytellers mobilize registers of yearning and solidarity to create emotional resonance that transcends individual biography, thereby sustaining shared cultural narratives and reinforcing communal bonds (Alexiou, 2010).

In collaboration with Cairns, Alexiou examined how mirth and mourning serve complementary roles in ritual and dramatic contexts (Alexiou & Cairns, 2017). Their edited collection shows how comic and tragic expressions deploy contrasting emotional registers to negotiate social tensions, allowing communities to process conflict, reinforce hierarchies, and affirm shared values through alternating modes of affective engagement (Alexiou & Cairns, 2017).

Through her integration of ethnographic fieldwork, philological analysis, and performance theory, Alexiou has established emotion as a performative medium with its own conventions and power structures. Her scholarship underscores that mastery of emotional scripts confers aesthetic authority and social agency, positioning emotional expression at the heart of cultural production and communal cohesion (Alexiou, 2002; Alexiou, 2010; Alexiou & Cairns, 2017).

The interrelation of persuasive discourse, ritual enactment, and affective expression lay at the heart of Byzantine communal life, shaping both public ceremonies and private devotion. Homiletic oratory harnessed emotional appeals to enact communal values and forge social cohesion through speech-acts that transcended mere doctrinal instruction. Liturgical ceremonies functioned as dynamic performances in which chant, gesture, and spatial choreography coalesced to evoke and regulate shared emotional states among participants. Narrative accounts of sanctity guided audiences through cycles of fear, wonder, and consolation by orchestrating rhetorical pacing and emotive detail, embedding theological teachings within the reader’s own affective experience.

Margaret Mullett’s scholarship has fundamentally transformed our understanding of performance and emotion in Byzantine literature through methodological innovation and interdisciplinary engagement (Mullett, 1990; 2023a). Her pioneering work on the performative dimensions of Byzantine texts reveals how literary composition served not merely as written record but as dynamic social practice that shaped communal identity and emotional experience (Mullett, 2018; 2023c). By examining the relationship between text, object, and performance in ceremonial contexts, she has demonstrated how Byzantine authors crafted works specifically for oral delivery, utilizing rhetorical strategies to elicit particular affective responses from their audiences (Mullett, 2013; 2018; 2023c). Her investigations into hybrid literary forms—texts that combine genres such as saint’s lives with ascetic anthologies or legal documents with tragic lament—illuminate the experimental nature of twelfth-century Byzantine literature and its capacity for emotional manipulation (Mullett, 2020). Through collaborative editorial work, particularly her contributions to the study of emotions in Byzantium, she has established frameworks for understanding how Byzantine writers constructed emotional communities through shared performative experiences (Harvey & Mullett, 2017; 2022). Her originality lies in revealing Byzantine literature as a fundamentally performative medium where emotional engagement was not incidental but constitutive of textual meaning, thereby challenging traditional approaches that treated Byzantine texts as static literary artifacts.

The investigation of performative dimensions in Byzantine culture has revealed how ritual gestures, spatial choreography, and vocal enactments served as foundational mechanisms for expressing imperial authority and communal identity. Detailed analyses demonstrate that court ceremonies and ecclesiastical processions operated as intricately scripted performances in which gesture and oration enacted theological doctrines while reinforcing hierarchical structures. A performative reading of manuscript illuminations and liturgical chants further shows how visual and aural elements collaborated to produce immersive experiences that guided participants through stages of anticipation, revelation, and communion. Studies of martyrdom narratives staged in public festivals underscore the dynamic relationship between performers and observers, illustrating how emotional resonance was cultivated through synchronized movement, recitative pacing, and symbolic costumes (Marciniak, 2004). Research into the design of ceremonial spaces has highlighted how architectural layout and audience positioning functioned as active components of performance, shaping the sensory engagement of viewers and underscoring the sacral authority of rulers and clerics.

In addition, comparative work on ritual lament and comedic interludes within court entertainments reveals how contrasting affective registers were deployed to negotiate tension and reaffirm communal values (Marciniak, 2014; 2017). This scholarship integrates methodologies from performance theory, art history, and ritual studies to uncover the embodied practices that underpinned Byzantine social cohesion. Close attention to the interplay of spoken word, music, and gesture reveals that performance was not an embellishment but a central modality for negotiation of power, religious devotion, gender and communal memory (Marciniak, 2024). By situating performance at the core of cultural production rather than treating it as peripheral, this body of work offers a novel framework for understanding how Byzantines authored their world through enacted ritual and spectacle, marking a significant and original contribution to the field.

An expanding body of scholarship has demonstrated that Byzantine image-makers and viewers engaged in richly performative encounters, infusing visual and verbal media with affective power (James, 2007). Through close attention to gestures, gaze, and the choreography of viewing, it has been shown that devotional images functioned as dynamic interlocutors, inviting worshippers to enact piety through ritualized engagement with icons and mosaics. Analysis of dedicatory inscriptions and sermons reveals how clerics and patrons employed emotional language—ranging from compassion to awe—to regulate spectators’ responses during liturgical processions and architectural unveilings (James, 2017). Investigations into illustrated manuscripts further illustrate how narrative cycles staged scenes of martyrdom and miracle to guide readers through calibrated sequences of fear, wonder, and consolation. By integrating methodologies from art history, performance studies, and cognitive theory, this work uncovers the embodied strategies through which images and texts co-created communal memory and theological understanding. Emphasizing the interplay of image, word, and spectator affect, this scholarship reframes Byzantine cultural production as an immersive performative continuum rather than as static monuments. Its originality lies in revealing visual and verbal media as inseparable components of a multisensory performance environment that actively shaped emotional experience and social cohesion.

A nuanced understanding of Byzantine emotional culture has emerged through analyses demonstrating how art, rhetoric, and communal memory operated in tandem to shape affective experience (Webb, 2016). It has been shown that church mosaics and frescoes were deliberately composed to evoke empathy and collective identity by guiding the viewer’s gaze and eliciting visceral responses during liturgical gatherings (Webb, 1999a; 1999b). Webb’s seminal contribution lies in identifying the concept of an “emotional economy,” whereby visual and verbal media function as interdependent agents in producing shared affect. Detailed studies of rhetorical panegyrics reveal that orators employed carefully calibrated expressions of grief, joy, and reverence to reinforce doctrinal teachings and foster social cohesion, treating speech as a performative medium that shaped communal sentiment (Webb, 2016). Collaborative research with Liz James expanded this framework by showing how paired examinations of icon veneration and sermon delivery synchronized visual and aural rhetoric to amplify emotional engagement in devotional contexts (James & Webb, 1991). Investigations into devotional practices highlight how gestures of veneration before icons and relics were underscored by textual formulae that mobilized emotional registers, transforming personal piety into a shared affective framework. By integrating methodologies from art history, classical rhetoric, and performance studies, this work foregrounds the embodied interplay between visual spectacle, spoken word, and audience affect. Its originality lies in demonstrating that Byzantine art and rhetoric were not mere vehicles for propaganda but vital components of an immersive emotional economy, where art, speech, and ritual co-created a multisensory environment that mediated individual emotion and sustained communal bonds (Eastmond & James, 2003; Webb, 2016).

Together, these scholars have transformed our understanding of Byzantine performance by demonstrating its operation across diverse genres—from funeral lament and epistolary performance to satirical dialogue, icon veneration, and imperial ceremony. Their interdisciplinary approaches have encouraged a more nuanced exploration of performance as a cultural practice that intersects with literature, politics, visual art, and communal identity, revealing how Byzantines used embodied practices to construct meaning, negotiate power, and create shared cultural experiences that defined their civilization. Numerous other scholars have enriched our understanding of Byzantine emotions, rhetoric, and performance, and several are featured in this volume, with many more referenced across the chapters and bibliography. Any omissions here arise solely from the necessary concision of an introductory overview and in no way diminish the significance of their work, which continues to illuminate Byzantium’s rich expressive traditions.

Building on the foundational insights provided by numerous scholars who have enriched our understanding of Byzantine emotions, rhetoric, and performance, this volume presents a collection of insightful contributions that illuminate the diverse ways in which these concepts were manifested across cultural, religious, and artistic contexts. The following summaries offer a glimpse into the innovative research and scholarly discussions that define the field. Through these papers, the volume seeks to deepen our understanding of how performative practices shaped and were shaped by the Byzantine world.

White’s text delves into the significance of orality in Greek education during the Late Antique and Byzantine periods, highlighting the cultural and emotional depth of spoken language, even when transcribed. The study acknowledges growing scholarly interest in the emotional dimensions of Greek rhetorical performance, emphasizing the interactive communication between authors, actors, and audiences. White investigates the evolution of Greek education, advocating for a reevaluation of performance’s role, particularly in rhetoric and poetry, from Antiquity through the Byzantine era. Greek education involved extensive vocal training, encouraging students to see their voices as instruments and master various delivery modes. The discussion includes grammar schools’ role in developing students’ abilities to perform poetry and prose fluently, underscoring the importance of performance techniques like inflection and enunciation, and drawing parallels with modern theater rehearsals. The text highlights the performative aspects of reading aloud and recitation, crucial for internalizing literary texts. Furthermore, White examines poetic scholia —marginal annotations in manuscripts—as performance prompts, aiding students in understanding and performing literature effectively and offering insights into ancient Greek literature’s performative aspects.

Margaret Mullett examines “The Christos Paschon,” the twelfth-century Greek poem dramatizing Holy Week events, composed of plays, laments, a hypothesis, and prayers. The text’s authorship, dating, and intended purpose—whether sacred or secular, performed or read—are debated among scholars. Walter Puchner and Andrew Walker White analyze its performability, discussing stage directions, entrances/exits, and the balance between mimesis (representation) and diegesis (narrative). Puchner critiques its theatrical convention understanding, while White appreciates its innovation. Mullett explores the intersection of mimesis and diegesis, offering insights into the narrative structure and dramatic techniques. She analyzes a scene blending narration and enactment to create dramatic tension, drawing parallels with contemporary plays to highlight emotional impact. Mullett questions whether “The Christos Paschon” is a drama, trilogy, or tragedy, considering its performability within Byzantine theatrical traditions. She suggests potential staging settings and speculates on audience reception. Despite performance history uncertainties, the play likely found expression in formal productions and private readings, underscoring its significance in Byzantine literature and drama.

Maximos Constas delves into Maximos the Confessor’s Mystagogy, underscoring its significance in understanding Byzantine liturgy’s transformative power. This work reshapes perceptions of ritualization, embodying a profound existential transformation of humans through grace and emphasizing the ontological refashioning of human interiority. Maximos presents a theological vision of the Church, depicting the Liturgy as a cosmic drama of deification, marking a fusion of ecclesial and individual identity through ascetic and liturgical reception of the Spirit. Departing from Dionysius the Areopagite’s views, Maximos maps the church’s ritual space onto the human body, highlighting the reciprocal exchange between architecture and the body. Drawing from New Testament parallels between the body and the Temple, he elaborates on the relationship between liturgical forms and the human soul. The synthesis of liturgy and asceticism is highlighted, reflecting Maximos’s belief in liturgy’s transformative power, merging monastic experience with ecclesiology. This deepens the understanding of liturgy beyond external rituals, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between space, time, and movement. The Mystagogy’s vision envisions a profound transformation of the believer, echoed in Byzantine art and architecture.

Olkinuora examines the intricate relationship between liturgy, performance, and symbolism in Symeon of Thessalonica’s liturgical commentaries. The work highlights historical skepticism toward the performative aspects of liturgy within Orthodox theology, leading to neglect in scholarly discourse. Olkinuora advocates reevaluating liturgy’s performative nature through Symeon’s commentaries, which emphasize mimetic representation of Christ’s life and liturgical participation’s transformative potential. Key works, “Explanation of the Divine Temple” and “On the Sacred Liturgy,” offer detailed interpretations of Byzantine practices, preserving tradition. While some view Symeon’s works as polemical, his mystical understanding of liturgy is rooted in allegorical interpretation. Symeon emphasizes didactic and participatory mimesis, inviting clergy and laity to embody sacred rituals. The text explores the hierarchical structure of performance, with clergy as angelic beings and the faithful as participants in the divine drama, highlighting liturgical exclusivity’s role in fostering spiritual immersion. Symeon’s commentaries challenge liturgy as mere historical reenactment, emphasizing its sacramental presence, drawing from Maximos the Confessor and Nicholas Cabasilas.

Sarah Gador-Whyte analyzes Romanos the Melodist’s hymn “On the Three Children,” focusing on its theological, liturgical, and performative aspects. The hymn retells the story of Hananias, Misael, and Azarias in the fiery furnace, diverging from typical Late Antique Christian hymnography. Romanos’ kontakia, performed during night vigils before Sunday services, aimed to spiritually edify congregants by inviting active participation. Through dialogue and emotional exploration, Romanos illuminated biblical narratives, fostering introspection and faith formation. The hymn highlights themes of unwavering faith, divine intervention, and resistance to temporal authority, portraying the youths as exemplars of constancy amid persecution. Romanos uses vivid imagery, trinitarian symbolism, and dialogue to engage congregants, encouraging introspection and spiritual growth. Positioned thematically before Christmas, the hymn serves as a prelude to the Incarnation, reflecting contemporary doctrinal tensions. “On the Three Children” stands as a profound reflection on Christian resilience, inviting listeners to embody the steadfastness of the youths in their spiritual journeys.

Jeffrey Wickes’ analysis of a Byzantine Syriac poem examines Ephrem the Syrian’s dying visions, where a vine emerging from his mouth symbolizes his enduring poetic legacy. Wickes explores language’s materiality and performative aspects in oral literature, using Oral Formulaic Theory to highlight the dynamic nature of oral traditions. Ephrem’s work, rooted in oral origins and performance, embodies the fluidity of oral literature, where language is a tangible entity, not just a conveyer of meaning. The article examines thematic and linguistic connections in Ephrem’s hymns to Christ and saints, emphasizing their contribution to sacredness and transcendence, and the interplay between oral tradition and textual form. Wickes suggests Ephrem’s hymns have deep oral roots, evident in their composition and liturgical use. He draws parallels between the transmission of oral hymns and the movement of holy relics, proposing both undergo a material and ritual journey, shaping and shaped by communal and sacred reception. This analysis encourages reevaluating text, performance, and the sacred through early Christian oral traditions, uncovering the intertwined nature of poetry, ritual, and theological expression in shaping spiritual identities and practices.

Barbara Crositini provides us with an analysis of the panel of the resurrection of the son of the widow of Sarepta by the prophet Elijah on the West Wall of the synagogue at Dura Europos (c. 230 CE) showing that this scene is conceived as a tableau vivant, where the gestures and poses of the characters construct their message by pointing to implied spoken words. Their dialogue can be retrieved from 1 Kings 17, but later dialogic dramatizations extant in Syriac poetry demonstrate how audiences were familiar with the scene through its re-enactment in various versions. Moreover, the iconography suggests a parallel with Euripides’ play, Alcestis, underscoring the dramatization of its primary message: resurrection as the sign of true prophecy. The synagogue functioned as a public space for performance, and its paintings provide witness to this type of activity and were likely inspired by it.

Katherine Marsengill’s paper delves into performativity in Byzantine visual art, focusing on icons and Late Antique Eikones. The “performative turn” in art studies has enhanced understanding of viewer interactions with art, emphasizing its affective and transformative nature. Themes include the multisensory sacred environments, the role of rituals, and dynamic encounters with the sacred through artworks. Icons were viewed as having agency, capable of actions like moving or bleeding, and mediating divine presence, facilitating spiritual encounters by conveying virtue through color and imagery. Drawing on J.L. Austin’s theory of performative utterances, Marsengill examines how cultural context shapes the performativity of painted portraits, highlighting the symbolic significance of colors and portrait painting in conveying spiritual truths. In Late Antiquity, portrait painting symbolized spiritual states, aligning with Christian beliefs in sacred material representations. Church Fathers encouraged vivid colors to bring life to images of martyrs, engaging viewers emotionally and spiritually. Marsengill concludes by reflecting on the epistemological significance of images and color symbolism in shaping perceptions of holy figures, influencing later theological developments.

Panou explores the role of orality, dialogue, and communication in Byzantine art, focusing on religious figures such as the Virgin Mary and Christ. Highlighting recent scholarly interest, Panou discusses how orality has been studied in Byzantine art, with scholars like Amy Papalexandrou and Ivan Drpić examining the interaction between religious architecture and inscriptions to enhance liturgical significance and the role of donors. Robert Ousterhout and Karl Sitz explore the relationship between orality and imagery, particularly in Cappadocian churches, where inscriptions encourage active participation in rituals. Panou’s paper investigates the use of dialogue in Byzantine art, both textually and visually, showing that orality was promoted by clergy and laity, evidenced by inscriptions accompanying narrative scenes. Athanasios Semoglou connects speech with donors’ salvation desires, while Miodrag Marković and Ivan Djordjević focus on dialogue imagery in the Virgin Paraklesis. Panou examines conversational communication through gestures and body language, emphasizing dialogue’s role in personalizing religious iconography and creating immediacy between figures and viewers. Textual orality serves as a reminder of donors’ supplications, with Christ’s response ensuring eternal salvation.

In her contribution Bissera Pentcheva, delves into the complex interplay between the invisible realm and the material manifestation of Christ as an icon in Byzantine piety and iconography. Following this theological foundation, the paper explores the development of Christ’s image as an icon in Byzantine art and liturgy, particularly in the aftermath of the Iconoclasm period (726–843 CE). It discusses the adoption of a specific iconographic form – a round medallion depicting Christ – which became prevalent in Byzantine churches, particularly in the main domes. The significance of this icon is underscored, portraying Christ as the focal point of salvation, prayer, judgment, and spiritual transformation.

Moreover, drawing parallels between the iconography and the liturgical experience, the author explores the spatial and symbolic significance of Christ’s icon in Byzantine churches. This narrative is enriched with references to liturgical texts, architectural features, and artistic depictions, providing a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted role of Christ’s icon in Byzantine religious life.

Trahoulia’s paper focuses on the Vatican psalter gr. 1927, examining its illustrations to understand the performative nature of the psalms and David’s role within them. Unlike other illustrated psalters, gr. 1927 consistently presents David as a performative figure, standing apart from the narrative action and gesturing towards the scenes, serving as a guide mediating between the text and the viewer/reader. David’s role in the illustrations is predominantly “literal,” directly illustrating psalm verses. He often stands in the center, larger than other figures, thus emphasizing his role as an intermediary between Christ and humankind, encouraging viewer engagement and reflection.

David’s performative stance, addressing the viewer/reader, reinforces the personal significance of the psalms. Through illustrations and psalter text excerpts, viewers are guided to contemplate the meaning of the text actively. Considering the Byzantine concept of rulership following a Davidic model, the manuscript’s illustrations could address an imperial audience, facilitating a merging of the imperial user with their biblical prototype.

Zarras’ work on “Performativity and Theatricality in Palaiologan Iconography” examines the expressive depth of Late Byzantine art during the Palaiologan era. Focusing on the depiction of the Temptations of Christ in the Chora Monastery, Zarras highlights the period’s narrative and performative artistry. This era’s art is marked by dynamic emotion and motion, transforming biblical stories into vivid, theatrical performances. The Chora composition showcases the psychological and emotional states of Christ and Satan through body language and facial expressions, creating a lively narrative that engages viewers spiritually and emotionally. The sparse gospel descriptions are expanded upon to emphasize dialogues and emotional states, bringing the scenes to life. The essay also explores the influence of the patron, Theodore Metochites, whose philosophical views on the struggle between Good and Evil shape the iconography and thematic focus. Metochites’ influence adds theological and existential depth, enriching the artwork’s representation and impact.

Mitrea’s chapter explores the hagiographical work of Philotheos Kokkinos, focusing on the Life of St. Sabas the Younger and his embodiment of holy foolery in late Byzantium. Holy foolery, a key aspect of Byzantine monasticism, involved feigning madness to conceal spiritual practices, endure abuse, and share in Christ’s suffering. Kokkinos’s depiction of Sabas, a 14th-century ascetic, exemplifies this tradition. Despite his upper-class origins, Sabas rigorously pursued asceticism, experiencing diverse monastic practices, including holy foolery, across Byzantium. Kokkinos uses performance studies to analyze Sabas’s nonverbal communication and interactions, drawing on Jeffrey C. Alexander’s framework of social performance to explore how Sabas conveyed spiritual messages and critiqued societal norms through his actions. Sabas’s holy foolery performances were carefully planned to communicate deeper meanings. Despite facing violence and misunderstanding, his humility and endurance eventually earned him admiration among Orthodox Cypriots. Kokkinos effectively portrays Sabas’s evolving reputation from initial ignorance to widespread reverence, using his narrative to convey both spiritual and societal insights.

Marka Tomic’s paper explores the complex relationship between painted text and images in Serbian art, rooted in Byzantine culture. The study focuses on the use of Old Testament verses, particularly Proverbs 9:1–6, in the decoration of 13th and 14th-century Serbian churches, highlighting the connection between Divine Wisdom and Christ based on Byzantine teachings. The paper examines the liturgical use of these verses, reflecting Christological and Eucharistic interpretations in Byzantine theology, and their integration into services like Vespers and Church Consecration. It discusses visual representations in frescoes, such as those at Rila Monastery and the Church of St. Demetrios at Markov Manastir, depicting the allegory of Holy Wisdom’s feast with imagery of Divine Wisdom, the Gifts of the Holy Spirit, and Biblical figures like Solomon. The evolution of iconographic interpretations from literal to complex theological expressions is highlighted, emphasizing their connection to liturgical practices. These representations invite viewers into deeper contemplation of divine mysteries. The paper also explores the reception of Byzantine Patristic tradition in medieval Serbia, emphasizing the influence of figures like Philotheos Kokkinos and the transmission of theological ideas through translations and manuscripts.

Vroom’s paper investigates the link between excavated artifacts and social practices, focusing on Byzantine dining rituals. It emphasizes the importance of understanding artifacts in relation to performance, foodways, and social distinctions. Using insights from anthropology and sociology, the paper describes eating as a performative act, particularly among elites. Byzantine banquets are pivotal in political and sociocultural rituals, showcasing social hierarchy and serving as propaganda. Manuscript accounts reveal practices like the shift from couches to chairs and benches for dining. The paper examines archaeological and iconographical evidence of Byzantine banquets, detailing opulent meals and lavish artifacts. It explores the concept of pottery as social imitation during the Middle Byzantine period, showing how ceramic tableware mirrored higher-status materials and fashion trends. By analyzing excavated pottery, the paper highlights changes in glazed tableware shapes and decoration motifs, reflecting shifts in dining habits and social practices. Vroom positions Byzantine pottery as a key to understanding performance, dining rituals, and social distinctions, advocating an interdisciplinary approach to material culture’s societal implications.

Music in performance is an area about which we only have indirect information deriving from miniatures and texts in the historical periods with which this collection of articles deals with. However, the contributions of Gordana Blagojevic and Michalis Cholevas throw light into aspects of musical performances in Byzantium and beyond.

Gordana Blagojevic examines Byzantine music through an anthropological lens, combining historical insights, personal experiences, and the cultural significance of this musical tradition. Anthropology is viewed as a storytelling discipline, facilitating dialogue between anthropologists, subjects, and the audience. This dialogue is crucial in studying Byzantine music, which is portrayed as a living tradition influencing Christian Orthodox communities. Byzantine music relies heavily on oral tradition, with knowledge passed from teacher to student, allowing for personal artistic and spiritual interpretation within a written framework. The article highlights the dynamic interaction between oral and written traditions in Byzantine music. Blagojevic shares her personal journey from the community’s periphery to its center, illustrating her integration into the Byzantine musical dialogue. This narrative underscores the evolving nature of Byzantine music, where tradition is continuously reshaped by individual contributions and communal interactions, maintaining its relevance and vibrancy in contemporary practice.

Michael Cholevas explores the creation of a performance for the 2021 conference “Performance in Late Antiquity and Byzantium.” This event featured two poems by Giorgos Gotis, “Easter at Olympia” and “All Souls’ Day,” translated and recited by Andrew Watson. Musician Michalis Cholevas set Gotis’s poetry within the Eastern Mediterranean makam modes, akin to Byzantine ήχοι, using improvisation to reflect the hybrid and multicultural traditions of Late Antiquity and Byzantium. Gotis’s poetry evokes ancient sculptures and monuments, alongside Byzantine landmarks related to death rituals, which continue to influence modern Greek practices. Through this fusion of words and music, the artists aimed to highlight the performative qualities inherent in poetry and musical improvisation. This approach draws from the extensive tradition of regions where ancient civilizations evolved into the diverse cultural expressions of Byzantium, illustrating the enduring connection between historical and contemporary cultural idioms.

The future of performance studies is set to explore the intricate interplay between performance and performativity, particularly through the lens of Late Antiquity and Byzantium, where the heritage of rhetoric in written word and art historical records plays a pivotal role. This examination invites a reconsideration of how these historical practices inform contemporary understandings of identity, cultural expression, and the construction of meaning, particularly through the lens of emotion. In concluding this introduction, the collection of articles presented in this volume embodies the collaborative spirit and intellectual rigor that have guided the research project since its inception in 2016. By drawing on the rich traditions of Byzantine studies and integrating insights from performance theory, social anthropology, and art history, these contributions illuminate the complex interplay of performance and performativity across Late Antiquity and Byzantium. The diverse case studies, spanning theological texts, liturgical practices, visual arts, and contemporary interpretations, reflect the multifaceted nature of Byzantine cultural expression. As readers engage with these studies, they are invited to explore how performative acts not only shaped but were also shaped by the socio-cultural and religious landscapes of Byzantium. This volume aims to inspire further inquiry and dialogue within the field, contributing to a deeper understanding of the performative dimensions that continue to resonate within the Byzantine legacy.